By Brooke Cupelli

 

For many Canadians, single-use plastic products are an essential—and often overlooked—part of everyday life. Whether the practice of using disposable plastic products is a conscious or unconscious choice, the outcome of the products’ ephemeral life is likely the same: the landfill. One of the products Canadians use, with the shortest lifespan, is single-use plastic cups. The grab-and-go culture of coffee shops and fast-food restaurants continues to place convenience and comfort above conscience. Public perception continues to grow around the compulsive consumption of single-use cups, but the simple luxury, aesthetic, and comfort endure. This crisis begs the question: What is the most sustainable cup?

​

The make-up of single-use plastic cups 

 

At their core, single-use plastic cups are a product designed to hold a beverage in a single-use scenario, intended for use once and then discarded. Most commonly used for coffee and soda, these cups are durable and temporary. Although created for rapid use and discard, these products remain in our environment and landfills long after their window of usefulness has passed.

​

Single-use cups have many compositional variants. Disposable cups are created from “conventional petro-plastics, bioplastics, or paperboard (coated with petro-plastics or bioplastics).” [20] The majority of these cups have paper plastic laminates (PPL), which consist of high-quality cellulose fibre and a thin internal coating. [14] Single-use cup variations can include paperboard cups with single-walled, double-walled, and ripple-walled (corrugated inner-lining) variants. Paperboard is a pulp product that is frequently bleached and thicker than average paper products. It has additional variant coatings to protect from liquid leakage when made into cups. [18] As previously stated, single-use cups are often made of paper plastic laminates, with the majority of single-use cups having polyethylene or polypropylene (both versatile thermoplastics with various possible applications) coating. There are alternative coating options, such as wax or biodegradable coatings. In comparable life cycle studies, no current conclusive evidence has shown that the afterlife of these cups is any different than those containing plastic. [20] Further, these cups can be contaminated by other variables, making responsible disposal difficult. Although bio-plastic coating options are seemingly better for the environment, they are more expensive to produce and face many of the same challenges as conventional single-use plastic cups. The majority of disposable cups, whether plastic in their entirety or paper with plastic coating, are incredibly challenging to recycle and do not naturally decompose. Current studies point out, but do not measure, the additional components of these products, such as lids, sleeves, and straws, all lacking proper disposal protocols. Although they remain unmeasured within single-use cup studies, these items are among the top five plastic waste items found in our environment. [11]

​

What makes up the most plastic waste in Canada? 

 

“Canada is the world’s largest per capita producer of plastic waste” [17], with the highest percentage of waste plastic coming from packaging, at 47 percent. [10] Within the percentage of plastic packaging waste, the majority is single-use plastic in the form of cigarette butts (the number one plastic waste product), wrappers, straws/ utensils, and single-use cups. [8] “The unchecked consumption of single-use plastics, combined with the low recycling rate, means that Canada is [complicit and] significantly contributing to the global plastic pollution crisis.” [7] Canadians discard 1.6 billion single-use plastic cups annually (2024). [1]

​

A 2019 audit of branded plastic pollution, via Greenpeace Canada, showed that 39 percent of single-use plastic waste came from five main companies, and single-use cups were in the top five collected waste items. [8] The top five plastic polluters ranked, in order, were: Nestlé, Tim Hortons, Starbucks, McDonald’s, and the Coca-Cola Company, all of which produce single-use plastic cups. [8] These companies were all trending at levels that would keep them in their leading positions as high polluters when the Coronavirus halted the ability to run this annual study. The solution to the single-use cup crisis is not solely the responsibility of companies or consumers. The solution lies in an all-encompassing effort to mitigate, which includes companies taking responsibility past the point of sale and consumers forcing and endorsing alternative options to grab-and-go culture. The Canadian government has begun developing and implementing better regulatory measures regarding single-use plastics, with a commitment to “increasing the recycled content in certain plastic products and packaging to at least 50 percent by 2030.” [10] If this goal can be met, measurable change can occur, but the current state of plastic recycling in Canada is dire. 

​

Plastic Recycling in Canada

 

97 percent of households in Canada with access to recycling report that they use at least one recycling program. [2] Canadians’ access to recycling programs ranges from the highest access in Prince Edward Island (99 percent of households have access and utilize program(s)), to the lowest access to programs in Newfoundland and Labrador (with as low as 35 percent access to comprehensive recycling programs and 72 percent household access to plastic recycling specifically). [2] With this rate of access and utilization of household recycling programs, most Canadians would rightfully surmise their efforts lead to recycled plastic products, but this is not the case. With a staggering 9 percent of plastic being recycled (2016), Canada’s plastic recycling rate matches the global estimate at approximately the same percentage (9 percent). In more recent years, “almost five million tonnes of plastic waste was thrown away in Canada,” with only 7 percent being recycled, 2 percent less than the previous study (2021). [4, 10] Roughly 86 percent of plastic waste in Canada ends up in the landfill, with the remaining percentage being shipped overseas, incinerated, or lingering in our natural environments as litter and cumulative pollution. [10, 15] With these numbers in mind and the facts surrounding the recyclability of single-use plastic cups, other solutions to the convenient-cup crisis must arise. 

​

The broader impact of single-use plastic cups

 

The challenges of waste and recycling remain a key factor in the negative impact single-use plastic cups have on the environment and human life, with other aspects adding to their overall adverse nature. Resource depletion regarding disposable cup production impacts water consumption, the usage of trees/ lumber, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from manufacturing and transportation. The most energy-intensive process of the single-use cup life cycle is the processing and manufacturing. [18] Single-use cups are “mostly made of virgin tree cellulose,” resulting in a substantial carbon footprint. [16] In a study from the University of British Columbia (UBC), it was found that converting “one metric ton of raw materials into the finished product requires 9000-12000 kg of steam, 960-1000 kWh electrical power and 50m3 cooling water.” [18] For additional scope, a study in the UK found an equivalence of carbon emissions from paper cup manufacturing to match emissions from the manufacturing of 11,500 mid-size passenger vehicles. [16] Further, Canadians drink an estimated 14 billion cups of coffee a year, with 30 percent consumed on the go, punctuating the usage rate of single-use coffee cups. [19] The negative impact of single-use plastic cups can come in the form of plastic debris, harmful chemicals that leach from the plastic into groundwater and poison marine life, as well as floating plastic waste that can survive for an immeasurable amount of time. [18] In combination, these facts make a grab-and-go disposable cup a consumerist cultural benefit and a clear environmental detriment. [19]

​

Health risks of single-use plastic cups

 

The detrimental effects of single-use plastic cups are not limited to the environment; they also pose substantial health risks. Disposable cups release “microplastics (675-5984 particles/L) through the plastic coating of paper cups or directly from plastic cups.” [6, 16] The amount of released microplastics increases with high-temperature drinks (such as coffee), as well as with acidic carbonation (soda). [16] Further to these factors, microplastics in single-use plastic cups prove to release more frequently with repeated cup use, meaning if the consumer attempts to offset the external environmental damage that the disposable nature of the cup holds, they are in turn causing more potential internal harm. [16] Microplastics can cause detrimental health problems in living organisms, “such as developmental delays, cardiovascular diseases, and gastrointestinal disorders.” [16] In the same way that microplastics can enter the biological human system, they too can enter the external environment. One study assessed commercial disposable cups with polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene coatings. This study showed results of no significant difference in microplastic release in one variant coating versus another, proving that there is no positive plastic in single-use products. [6] 

​

So, what solutions do we have? 

​

Research and Education

 

With many different tangible solutions, there are answers to combating the single-use cup crisis. Many universities are currently running studies with different findings, such as The University of Manitoba (2018), Cornell University, Ithaca (2024), McMaster University (2024), UBC (open case study), and countless others. This broad attention to research shows the desire for sustainable solutions. Education is paramount to tangible change. 

​

One study has resulted in a new recycling outlet for disposable cups. This study found that shredding them into flakes and using them for reinforcement for polypropylene composites was a successful diversion. [14] Outside of recycling practices, many studies focus on consumer behaviour. Experiments looking at behavioural economics and economic psychology showed that people were more open to dynamic norms (perception of change over time), versus static norms (what is) and static injunctive norms (what ought to be). [12] These studies show that gradual change leads to better public perception and adoption of change regarding reusable cups. Another study looked at probabilistic rewards leading to a substantial rise in engagement of people using personal cups. Consumers who had the opportunity for a free drink, a discount on their drinks, a rewards program, or some level of incentivization were more likely to remember and use their reusable cup. [16] With reusable cups being a clear part of the solution, there must be wider use among Canadians. In 2022, only 28% of Canadians said that they used a reusable cup or mug for their on-the-go hot beverages. [16] Motivations were common among consumers using their reusable cups, with throughlines in multiple studies. These motivations include “concerns for the environment, social norms, avoiding surcharges placed on single-use cups, and financial incentives such as discounts and loyalty stamps” for use of their personal cup. [16]

​

Consumer Responsibility 

 

Reusable cups are a better option than single-use plastic cups for many reasons. “The greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production and disposal of single-use cups are 70-80% higher” than reusable cups. [21] Durability and reusability are great assets in combating single-use plastic cups. With a lower carbon footprint and reduced waste, reusable cups are a valuable portion of the solution. Although the initial production of reusable cups requires more resources, the cumulative result of usage is substantially more positive and decreases the overall manufacturing and transportation of single-use plastic cups. [21] The largest identified setbacks to consumers using personal cups are the financial cost of the cups, lack of incentives for continued use, remembering to bring one’s cup, and inconvenience. [16] Each setback comes with a simple solution, many calling for a willingness to adjust consumer behaviour. The concept of a returnable reusable cup model is also a viable solution to these setbacks. This model allows the consumer to no longer have to carry their own personal cup, and rather join a social contract held with a small deposit from the company they are purchasing their beverage(s) from. This, too, comes with its own setbacks, but is an example of innovation and options available to companies and the consumer. 

​

Policy and Regulation 

 

Education and consumer action must be met by government policy and regulation if we are to expect large-scale change. We must address systemic issues facing plastic recycling. These issues need cooperation from the municipal, provincial, and federal governments in order to be successful. A call for “federal policies governing local materials recovery facilities” would allow for more comprehensive recycling programs to reach Canadians. [18] These recycling practices and facilities would be further able to combat single-use plastic cups and other single-use plastics. Broadening curbside recycling programs for Canadians will also allow for a greater success rate in overall recycled materials. [18] When looking at funding upgraded recycling facilities, government partnerships with private companies and venture capital can facilitate a faster success rate. [18]

​

Canada does have current Single-use Plastic Prohibition Regulations (SUPPR). They first came into effect in June 2022, with further protocols beginning December 2023. The SUPPR “is part of the government’s comprehensive plan to address pollution, achieve its target of zero plastic waste by 2030, and help reduce greenhouse gas emissions,” ultimately intending to “reduce plastic waste that ends up in the environment.” [10] The goal of the SUPPR is plastic pollution prevention “by eliminating or restricting the six categories of single-use plastics that pose a threat to the environment.” [5] The six categories identified by the government are: “checkout bags, cutlery, food service ware containing expanded or extruded polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, oxodegradeable plastic or black plastic made with carbon black, ring carriers, stir sticks, and straws.” [5] These changes have been furthered by municipal bans on single-use plastics spanning across the country. Bans have mainly focused on plastic bags, with expansion to utensils and food containers, allowing small changes to take place. [13] With different regulations from federal to municipal bans on single-use plastics, compliance is challenging for businesses and consumers alike. This challenge, as well as other obstacles, has caused resistance to these policies at every level of government. Some municipal bylaws have been set and overturned, and the SUPPR was challenged in court but has currently been granted a Federal Court of Appeal stay motion in January 2024. [3] For this time, the SUPPR remains in effect. [3]

​

Answering the question: 

 

With legal, social, and environmental challenges to face, resistance against single-use plastic consumption is vitally important for the future. Although the SUPPR takes valuable steps, there is more that needs to be done, including a specific policy directly addressing single-use plastic cups. Further, the SUPPR has many unsustainable goals that need substantial improvements, revisions, and better public perception. With a vast amount of information and many active studies revolving around single-use plastic cups, the current resolution calls for a collaborative effort from companies, consumers, and the government. The basics of the three “Rs” of recycling can remind us that reduction is always the first goal, followed by reuse, and finally recycling. [9]

​

With reduction at the forefront of our minds, I return to the question I originally posed: What is the most sustainable cup? And the answer, as we actively navigate this issue, is the cup we already own. 

​

References: 

​​

1. Bajwa , M., Low , A., Robinson, M., Shakeel , A., & Shouldice, H. (2024, March 2). Understanding Students’ Perspectives on Single-Use Coffee Cups at McMaster University to Improve Current Initiatives. https://asp.mcmaster.ca/app/uploads/2024/05/FINAL_Manuscript.pdf 

2. Blair, N. (2024, December 31). Recycling Statistics in Canada. Made in CA. https://madeinca.ca/recycling-canada-statistics/ 

3. Canada (Environment and Climate Change)  (2023, April 18). Government of Canada. Single-use Plastics Prohibition Regulations: Overview - Canada.ca. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/managing-reducing-waste/reduce-plastic-waste/single-use-plastic-overview.html 

4. Canada (2025, May 30). How to reduce plastic waste and pollution in your everyday life. Canada.ca. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/campaigns/beat-plastic-pollution-challenge.html 

5. Canada (Single-use Plastics Prohibition Regulations) (2023). Single-use Plastics Prohibition Regulations Technical Guidelines. Canada.ca. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2023/eccc/En14-494-1-2023-eng.pd

6. Chen, H., Xu, L., Yu, K., Wei, F., & Zhang, M. (2023). Release of microplastics from disposable cups in daily use. The Science of the Total Environment, 854, Article 158606. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158606

7. The environmental impact of single-use plastic cups in Canada and why Reusable Cups are the future. Circulr. (2024, December 23). https://circulr.ca/2024/10/29/the-environmental-impact-of-single-use-plastic-cups-in-canada-and-why-reusable-cups-are-the-future/ 

8. Fiset, M.-C. (n.d.). Nestlé, Tim Hortons top Greenpeace Canada’s Plastic Polluter List for Second Year. Greenpeace Canada. https://www.greenpeace.org/canada/en/press-release/26011/nestle-tim-hortons-top-greenpeace-canadas-plastic-polluter-list-for-second-year/ 

9. Gouvernement du Canada. (2023, May 5). Government of Canada. Recycled content and labelling rules for plastics - Canada.ca. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/canadian-environmental-protection-act-registry/recycled-content-labelling-rules-plastics.html 

10. Koshelev, D., & Aiello, M. (2023, December 15). The disheartening state of plastic recycling in Canada: A pressing call for reform: Lark scientific: Axel Doerwald. Lark Scientific. https://www.larkscientific.org/post/the-disheartening-state-of-plastic-recycling-in-canada-a-pressing-call-for-reform 

11. Lindwall, C. (2025, June 24). Single-use plastics 101. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/single-use-plastics-101

12. Loschelder, D. D., Siepelmeyer, H., Fischer, D., & Rubel, J. A. (2019). Dynamic norms drive sustainable consumption: Norm-based nudging helps café customers to avoid disposable to-go-cups. Journal of Economic Psychology, 75, Article 102146. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2019.02.002

13. Mertiri, D., & Besner, M. L. (2023, February 7). Closing the gaps: Single-use plastic regulations, recycling and labelling rules in Canada. BLG. https://www.blg.com/en/insights/2023/02/closing-the-gaps-single-use-plastic-regulations-recycling-and-labelling-rules-in-canada 

14. Mitchell, J., Vandeperre, L., Dvorak, R., Kosior, E., Tarverdi, K., & Cheeseman, C. (2014). Recycling disposable cups into paper plastic composites. Waste Management (Elmsford), 34(11), 2113–2119. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.05.020

15. Naddaf, R. (2022, July 6). Canada’s plastic problem: Sorting fact from fiction. Oceana Canada. https://oceana.ca/en/blog/canadas-plastic-problem-sorting-fact-fiction/#:~:text=FACT%3A%20About%2086%20per%20cent,in%20the%20environment%20as%20litter. 

16. Sheppard, S. B., Argentopoulos, S., Ware, J., Swearingen, A., Winfield, J., Radke, J., & Zhao, J. (2025). Probabilistic rewards increase the use of reusable cups. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 212, Article 108001. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.108001

17. Tiseo, Ian (Publisher). (2023, December 6). Largest waste producing countries per capita. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1168066/largest-waste-producing-countries-worldwide-per-capita/ 

18. Toor, S., Khan, M., Dhir, N., & Bajwa, A. (n.d.). Ecological and social costs of single use Coffee Cups. Ecological and social costs of single use coffee cups | Open Case Studies. https://cases.open.ubc.ca/w17t2con200-3/ 

19. University of Manitoba (Office of Sustainability) (n.d.). Let’s talk waste: Disposable cups. UM Today. https://news.umanitoba.ca/lets-talk-waste-disposable-cups/ 

20. van der Harst, E., & Potting, J. (2013). A critical comparison of ten disposable cup LCAs. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 43, 86–96. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2013.06.006

21. Wentz, J. (n.d.). Reuse wins at events: A life-cycle analysis of reusable and single-use cups. University of St. Thomas . https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5f218f677f1fdb38f06cebcb/t/610aaa9a1f89ff0d02ef7d7d/1628089003873/Cup+LCA+Report_Final.pdf 

​